Comparison of Translanguaging Practices and Ideologies in Secondary and Tertiary ESL Settings in Malaysia: Teachers' Perspective

Prior studies on translanguaging have only focused on either preschool, primary, secondary, or tertiary education levels separately. There is very little research that compares the use of translanguaging across two or more educational levels. To address this paucity, this preliminary study is carried out to explore and compare translanguaging practices and ideologies in Malaysian tertiary and secondary education settings. The study investigated (a) teachers' practices of translanguaging in secondary and tertiary ESL classrooms; and (b) their perspectives on translanguaging in these two different contexts. The pilot study employed a qualitative approach in which two participants consisting of a teacher from a secondary school and a teacher from a public university in Malaysia were interviewed in semi-structured interview sessions. The data were then thematically analysed using Romanowski's (2019) translanguaging strategy framework. Three additional sub-strategies were discovered from the findings and hence added to the framework for analysis. Results show that teachers from both educational settings use translanguaging in all three categories of translanguaging strategies proposed by Romanowski (2019), namely the explanatory, managerial, and interpersonal strategies. Nevertheless, there are differences in the usage of the sub-strategies under each category in secondary and tertiary ESL classrooms. Besides that, while translanguaging is generally accepted as an effective pedagogical tool, to some degree, teachers are still restricted by the monolingual approach in ESL classrooms. The study recommends that teachers in different educational contexts should select the most appropriate translanguaging strategies for their learners and be mindful with their implementation.


INTRODUCTION
The teaching of English as a second or foreign language has undergone many reforms since it first started. In the beginning of its execution where advocates proposed the Grammar Translation Method (GTM), the employment of learners' native language became the major method for teaching the target language to them. To make up for the flaws of this earliest system, the approaches which emerged following the GTM namely the Direct Approach, Audiolingualism (U.S.), Situational Approach (Brit.), Cognitive Approach, Affective-Humanistic Approach, Comprehension-Based Approach, and Communicative Approach mostly practise the target language-only method (Celce-Murcia, 2001). In these approaches, the use of learners' first language (L1) is strictly prohibited as it is claimed that it would interfere with the acquisition of the second language.
Interestingly, the notion of how L1 would interfere with learners' acquisition of the target language remains arguable. In fact, in recent years, the use of learners' first language is deemed as a useful tool to facilitate second or foreign language learning by many advocates. This is seen through the translanguaging technique in the ESL/EFL lessons practised by many instructors in the current ESL education discipline. Translanguaging in this context represents the employment of L1 in the teaching of English as a second language to L2 learners instead of using only the target language and strictly prohibiting the use of L1. Cenoz and Gorter (2011) define translanguaging as "the combination of two or more languages in a systematic way within the same learning activity", while Baker (2011) defines it as "the process of making meaning, shaping experiences, gaining understanding and knowledge through the use of two languages" (cited in Poza, 2017). Studies have been conducted to investigate whether translanguaging is efficient, practical, and able to help or challenge the process of achieving the educational and societal aims of multilingual settings that exist all around the world (Beres, 2015;MacSwan, 2019;Wei, 2018). For example, investigations have been conducted by researchers to discuss how linguistic resources are utilised by language instructors to facilitate second/foreign language learning processes (Achugar et al., 2007). Moreover, as validated by Beres (2015), some language instructors are confronted with challenges in fulfilling the needs of learners in an ESL/EFL lesson because of language barriers. Such situations leave them no other choice other than to eventually resort to translanguaging, especially when dealing with less proficient learners. Similarly, MacSwan (2019) also espouses that translanguaging is a useful pedagogical approach as it highlights the continuous and productive employment of multiple languages to improve learning and thus turns the school into a place that multilingual learners would find more welcoming. Furthermore, it has been extensively agreed that there is a need to "shift from approaching bilingualism as two separate, rigid, and static languages, to viewing them as fluid, flexible and permeable" to fulfil the needs of 21st century societies consisting of multilingual speakers (Beres, 2015). In this perspective, it would be useful to investigate how L1 and L2 are used together in an ESL/EFL classroom as a fluid and flexible language system to enhance learning experiences. Investigating the use of translanguaging in ESL/EFL classrooms would yield more information on the practices, awareness, attitudes, challenges, and various other aspects regarding this approach.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
The translanguaging notion is reasonably new and the concept is still in its developing phase (Beres, 2015). Hence, research on translanguaging in various aspects is relevant to discover findings and reveal more knowledge on this developing notion. In addition, several studies have been conducted to investigate translanguaging in ESL classrooms (Akbar & Taqi, 2020;Alasmari et al., 2022;Ali Tubayqi & Ahmed Al Tale, 2022;Al Tale & AlQahtani, 2022;Alzabidi & Al-Ahda, 2022;Berlianti & Pradita, 2021;Fang & Liu, 2020;Khairunnisa & Lukmana, 2020;Yasar Yuzlumm & Dikilitas, 2022;Portolés & Martí, 2017;Rabbidge, 2019). Nevertheless, these studies have only focused on either preschool, primary, secondary, or tertiary education levels separately, never combined. After extensive browsing through the corpus, the researchers have not found any study which juxtaposes the use of translanguaging in the settings of two or more education levels.
Since tertiary, secondary, elementary, and preschool are different education levels and employ different language learning curricula, there could be certain differences on how translanguaging is used and viewed by language instructors in the four contexts, which has yet to be revealed by fullfledged research. In addition, since translanguaging is a relatively new pedagogical approach, studies on translanguaging are still limited in the Malaysian context. Therefore, this current study aims to fill this gap by investigating teachers' practices as well as their perspectives on translanguaging in secondary and tertiary ESL/EFL classroom settings in Malaysia, which will be discussed in the form of a comparison.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Guided by the framework of strategies in translanguaging practices suggested by Romanowski (2019), the study aims to investigate: 1. teachers' practices of translanguaging in secondary and tertiary ESL/EFL classroom 2. teachers' perspectives of translanguaging in secondary and tertiary ESL/EFL classroom

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The study aims to answer the following research questions: 1. What are teachers' practices in implementing translanguaging in secondary and tertiary ESL/EFL classrooms? 2. What are teachers' perspectives on translanguaging in secondary and tertiary ESL/EFL classrooms?

THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDY
The findings of the study would add to the existing literature on translanguaging in ESL/EFL contexts. In addition, the findings would also provide new insights on the topic of translanguaging which will lead to the implications in the discipline of second/foreign language teaching and learning.

TRANSLANGUAGING
According to Cenoz and Gorter (2011), translanguaging is "the combination of two or more languages in a systematic way within the same learning activity". Similarly, Baker (2011) defines translanguaging as "the process of making meaning, shaping experiences, gaining understanding and knowledge through the use of two languages" (cited in Poza, 2017). For this study, the concept of translanguaging will be limited to the use of Malay Language (both teachers' and learners' mother tongue) in the instruction of English as a second language in formal classroom settings.

FIRST LANGUAGE
For this study, first language refers to the Malay Language (both teachers' and learners' mother tongue).

SECOND LANGUAGE
For this study, second language refers to the English Language (the target language).

ESL/EFL CLASSROOMS
For this study, ESL/EFL classrooms refer to language-based lessons involving English as the target language, instead of content-based lessons that use English as a medium of instruction.

LITERATURE REVIEW
English is used as a communicative tool and as a second language (L2) in countries which are typically ex-colonies of the United Kingdom or the United States including Malaysia, India, the Philippines, and Nigeria (Thirusanku & Yunus, 2012). The Malaysian education system is adopting the bilingual approach.
For decades, schools and institutions have divided the usage of language and assigned different teachers, lessons, or even calendar usage to one language or the other. This perspective widely comes from a belief that combining two languages could cause confusion to learners in which this process is being curbed. The fundamental reason for such belief was that "cross contamination" could be avoided when the languages used were being separated (Jacobson & Faltis, 1990).
It may seem that bilingual education is an effortless situation, which means the usage of two languages happens naturally or spontaneously; nevertheless, it is a complicated process for both teachers and students. In bilingual classes, learners with two different language contexts are exposed to the integration of goals in developing bilingualism and biliteracy in the target languages, academic performance, and cross-cultural understanding (Howard et al., 2003). This interaction is expected to support students in developing both components namely language and academic in a highly contextualised and platformed context of L2 classrooms.
Due to this situation, the role of L2 teachers is peculiarly demanding in making sure students are well taught in a language that they are not yet proficient in. As learners with existing proficiency in instructional language are together in a group with proficient users of that language, teachers' role is to manage the sociolinguistic, sociocultural, and academic context to ensure both groups of learners will be benefited (Valdes, 1997). Therefore, teachers need to be able to teach with all methods and practices available for students to get full input of the language.

TRANSLANGUAGING
Translanguaging can be defined as reconceptualization of language as a theory which is put forward in bilingual or multilingual contexts that only have "one linguistic repertoire from which they select features strategically to communicate effectively" (García, 2012, p. 1). According to García and Li Wei (2014), translanguaging does not mean a combination of L1 and L2 of learners. It is also not a way that multilinguals use to fill the gaps when they lack vocabulary in expressing thoughts monolingually. Relatively, in a communication setting, multilinguals integrate more than one language due to their selection of language features from their overall repertoire in a way that can assist them to achieve their communicative needs and propose the identity of their linguistics and culture. The theory of a language repertoire proposed by Otheguy et al. (2015) transcends conventional conceptualizations of language and shifts the belief of languages as independent, bounded systems. This is to recognise the practices as an integration of meaning-making approach. Through the lens of translanguaging theory, linear process is seen in language teaching, in which teachers or educators use languages such as English to their students' existing repertoire. Based on this perspective, it is seen that teachers and educators are engaging in a complex discursive practice that consider the learners' language repertoire to create new language strategies and retain the old ones, share relevant knowledge, and raise views on socio-political aspect by probing linguistic inequality (García & Kano, 2014). By using this practice, teachers and educators are able to derange the socially constructed language hierarchies that deter multilingual ESL/EFL learners from utilising their language repertoire entirely (Otheguy et al., 2015).

TRANSLANGUAGING PRACTICES
Previous research (Cenoz, 2017;Garcia and Wei, 2014) proposed the categorisation of translanguaging into two major categories. Natural translanguaging by Garcia and Wei (2014) and spontaneous translanguaging by Cenoz (2017) are similar in that they are used in understanding subject material and are also referred to as fluid language practices by students inside and outside of the classrooms. Both studies (Cenoz, 2017;Garcia and Wei, 2014) proposed an official and pedagogical translanguaging category referring to translanguaging used by teachers and educators with students in ensuring the understanding of subject material. Official translanguaging is categorised as pedagogical, in which it is used by teachers in their planned actions when interacting with students. The significance of translanguaging as a pedagogy is it supports in building linguistic strength of the students. Correspondingly, translanguaging in pedagogical settings focuses on language practices in the classroom and can also be used for input and output of other languages. Cenoz and Gorter (2020) propose that pedagogical translanguaging aims at fostering students' learning abilities and processes by acknowledging learners' employment of complete linguistic repertoire. The good advantage of translanguaging is that it acquires languages as discrete structure; nonetheless, the margins are considered soft, in which multilingual people are given the freedom and flexibility in the use of the language. Moreover, pedagogical translanguaging is permitted in language and content classes.
Additionally, Romanowski (2019) has conducted research in Poland where he investigates the translanguaging practices employed in the IB Diploma Programme. This programme is offered to students aged 16 to 19, making it compatible with this research study that has dual contexts namely secondary and tertiary levels. Guided by Romanowski's research (2019), translanguaging practices are divided into three distinctive strategies discovered in this study. Based on his findings, Romanowski has divided translanguaging practices in explanatory strategy, managerial strategy, and interpersonal strategy. These three strategies facilitate this study to further investigate the translanguaging practices among teachers in Malaysian secondary and tertiary ESL/EFL contexts.

TRANSLANGUAGING IDEOLOGIES
Although advocates were contemplated to accept translanguaging as a pedagogical theory (Lewis et al., 2012), translanguaging nowadays is seen as a pedagogical strategy or a process (García, 2009;García and Wei 2013) that will help to pave the way to a dynamic model of bilingualism. Even though translanguaging permits the dynamic and integrated use of two languages in ESL/EFL classroom, in many education systems including Malaysia, it is artificially separated. This given separation of the two languages aims to promote bilingualism by providing students with separate monolingual teaching practices (Cummins, 2008;Lambert, 1984) in what Heller (1999) calls parallel monolingualism and Cummins (2008) labels the two solitudes. However, based on an event in Canada, when teachers were given the permission of using the L2 and L1 interchangeably by the education theories, the strategy is not used significantly, in which the use of L1 is very habitual in many different contexts, including content-based programmes (García & Wei 2013;Lasagabaster 2013, in press;McMillan & Turnbull 2009; Van der Walt 2013).
Due to this fact, there is an increasing number of researchers who recommend a pedagogically and theoretically principled use of students' L1 and L2. However, despite the fact that Baker (2011) states that translanguaging is particularly useful in secondary and tertiary education, the vast majority of studies have mainly been tackled in primary and secondary education settings (Cenoz and Gorter, 2011;García, 2009;Lasagabaster, 2013;Lewis et al., 2012a and2012b;McMillan and Turnbull, 2009;Méndez and Pavón, 2012;Men-ken, 2013;Swain and Lapkin, 2013), whereas a much more limited number of researchers have dealt with tertiary education (Canagarajah, 2011a;Van der Walt, 2013), partly because interaction in higher education settings has so far been poorly researched (Van der Walt, 2013).

PAST STUDIES ON TRANSLANGUAGING
Several studies have been carried out to investigate translanguaging at various levels of education. For instance, Fang and Liu (2020) conducted a study involving language teachers and EFL students at a university in the south-eastern part of China to examine the practices and attitudes of both parties towards translanguaging in ESL/EFL classroom settings. The results depict that the learners show either neutral or positive attitudes toward the use of translanguaging. On the other hand, the instructors hold different attitudes and apply different practices of translanguaging, yet still generally acknowledge the ability of the approach in helping the mastery of lesson contents in terms of aiding students' understanding, establishing rapport among the students and teacher, and produce more successful learning for low-proficiency learners. Similarly, Alasmari et al. (2022) conducted a study involving teachers from Saudi Arabian universities to investigate their practices and views on translanguaging during online ESL/EFL lessons and the dynamic features of this approach. The findings show that the respondents largely have positive perceptions on translanguaging especially due to the ability of translanguaging in facilitating the comprehension of complicated vocabularies as well as inside and outside classroom interactions among the learners. Moreover, Berlianti and Pradita (2021) also conducted a study to investigate the use of translanguaging in EFL lessons with a focus on higher education settings, as well as to examine to what extent translanguaging in EFL classrooms can be helpful. In their study, the researchers involve one lecturer and 45 students from a university in Indonesia. The results denote that translanguaging practices applied in the lessons are helpful as they enable instructors to establish exciting conversations with students and hence help them to comprehend lesson materials that are more complex. Another function of translanguaging that is found helpful in this study is that it is used as a tool for classroom management such as making jokes in the learners' L1 to get their attention to the lesson material. In addition, Cai and Fang (2022) conducted research in the context of tertiary education which investigated the use of translanguaging and the attitudes toward the approach among language instructors at two universities in Macau and the Chinese mainland. The findings indicate that teachers implemented a variety of translanguaging practices, namely enhancing understanding, elucidating main terms, and establishing rapport in the classroom.
Studies have also been conducted on translanguaging in the lower education levels such as secondary, primary/elementary, and preschool. For instance, Yasar Yuzlu and Dikilitas (2022) conduct their research involving high school students of pre-intermediate and upper-intermediate levels in the northern part of Turkey to investigate the possible impact of the use of translanguaging on the EFL students' English listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills, as well as the learners' perspectives on the employment of translanguaging as a pedagogical approach in ESL/EFL classrooms. It is discovered that the practice of translanguaging is helpful in enhancing both the receptive and productive skills of ESL/EFL learners. Findings from the interview denote that the respondents find translanguaging beneficial in terms of cognitive, interactive, and affective aspects of learning as they claim that translanguaging assists them to exploit their linguistic repertoire to make meaning and negotiate during the tasks, thus creating a more comfortable learning environment which motivates them to use the target language. At the primary education level, Rabbidge (2019) is one of the researchers who conducted a study on translanguaging. In his research, Rabbidge involves elementary school teachers in South Korea to examine if learners' participation in ESL/EFL lessons is affected by the translanguaging approach practised by teachers. It is found that the employment of translanguaging as a pedagogical approach can promote learners' participation in the lesson in a way that increases their understanding of the teacher's instruction. Nevertheless, learners' participation becomes limited when translanguaging is done within Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF) sequences, implying that learners are not fully able to control the learning atmosphere in lesson delivery that employs a technique like IRF. Hence, it could be inferred that translanguaging does not always create opportunities for creative and critical thinking for ESL/EFL learners. There are also studies carried out on translanguaging in preschool classroom settings such as the one conducted by Portolés and Martí (2017). In their study, the researchers involved pre-school children at the age of 4 and 5 in the province of Castello, Spain to investigate the practices of translanguaging in the EFL early education context guided by the functions suggested by García et al. (2011). The findings show that preschool pupils exploit their L1, L2, and L3 language resources strategically to achieve different communicative goals.

STUDY DESIGN
By employing Creswell's framework for research design, this pilot study employed a qualitative research design with a phenomenological study approach. It facilitated the researchers' intent in exploring teachers' perspectives. Creswell and Creswell (2018) note on the importance of qualitative study in studying individuals and exploring their experiences toward an issue. This is also supported by Cropley (2021) in his book Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: A Practice-Oriented Introduction for Students of Psychology and Education. He notes that qualitative research design tackles issues in a different way from quantitative design. "Reality" is defined as subjective, and every individual poses a unique, personal thought toward an issue. Therefore, employing a qualitative research design with a phenomenological study approach allowed researchers to obtain an in-depth exploration of participants' views. This is aligned with the objectives of this pilot study which are to investigate teachers' practices and perspectives in the implementation of translanguaging in both secondary and tertiary ESL/EFL classrooms.

SAMPLE STUDY
The participants of this pilot study were selected through a non-probability sampling technique. These participants were selected using purposive sampling where the researchers had determined the specific criteria that the participants need to fulfil. Purposive sampling happens when researchers intentionally select the participants and sites. Creswell (2007) in his book Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design has also underlined sampling strategies for a phenomenological study approach. According to Creswell (2007), it is essential for the selected participants to have experience in the phenomenon studies; in this case, the selected participants must have experience in practising translanguaging. This is a crucial step which helped the researchers to obtain sound data to achieve the research objectives. This pilot study was conducted on two participants (n=2) which is suitable for a phenomenological study. The participants were selected based on these criteria: Based on these predetermined criteria, one participant was selected from each of the respective educational levels mentioned. One teacher is teaching in a public secondary school while the other one is teaching at a public university. Both have employed translanguaging in their ESL/EFL classrooms.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
For this research, data were collected using one instrument. A semi-structured interview session with the participants was conducted. According to Magaldi and Berler (2020), employing semistructured interviews allows the researchers to explore and discover meaningful views from the research subjects. This is also supported by Ruslin et al. (2022), who concluded in their research that qualitative researchers opt for a semi-structured interview rather than structured and unstructured interviews because of two reasons. Firstly, researchers obtain more detailed information when using semi-structured interviews. Secondly, semi-structured interviews provide enough room for the researchers to make necessary adjustments during the interview session. This facilitates the researchers to obtain the desired information from the research subjects. Based on these findings, the researchers of this pilot study selected a semi-structured interview as the research instrument. To ensure the validity and reliability of the interview questions used, the interview questions were adopted from Dougherty (2021). Dougherty has conducted a study entitled Translanguaging in Action: Pedagogy That Elevates. This study was selected as it has similar research objectives. Therefore, the adoption of its interview questions is appropriate. The interview questions can be viewed in Appendix 1.

DATA COLLECTION METHOD
The data were collected through semi-structured interview sessions that were conducted via virtual and face-to-face sessions. All interview sessions were audio recorded to facilitate the transcribing process. This interview session was held for about 30 -40 minutes. In order to protect the rights of the participants, a consent form was given prior to the interview session. Therefore, the participants' personal details were guaranteed confidential and were not disclosed in the findings of this pilot study. As explained earlier, this study adopted interview questions from an established study. Both participants received the same interview questions; however, there were different probe or follow-up questions given based on the participants' responses.
The data obtained through these interview sessions were transcribed. Then the transcripts were sent to the participants for reviewing procedures. This is an important step not only to review the quality of the transcripts but also to enhance the quality of this research. According to Mero-Jaffe (2001), the intention of this step is to validate the transcripts, uphold the ethics of the research, and provide power to the interviewees to control what was transcribed. Once this step was fulfilled, the data was then analysed. Figure 2 shows the flow of the data collection method.

DATA ANALYSIS METHOD
This research employed thematic analysis to interpret the obtained data. It is known as a powerful and flexible method for analysing qualitative data. The interview data was analysed using thematic analysis, and the data were categorised into themes. The data were interpreted deductively, and researchers utilised the raw data based on the themes in Romanowski's (2019) framework. Below is Braun and Clarke's (2006) six-phase framework of thematic analysis (cited in Maguire & Delahunt, (2017)). Using this framework, the researchers analysed the data independently by following all five steps mentioned above. Then all researchers compared their analysed data to look for any discrepancies. This is part of the intercoder agreement process which is crucial to ensure the finalised data is reliable and credible before the findings are reported. According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), when two or more coders agree on the identified codes, this has indirectly discriminated against the other coder.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
To provide insight into this study, the findings will be discussed based on the research questions developed. Teachers' practices in implementing translanguaging and their perspectives toward the implementation of translanguaging in two different contexts were examined to identify the similarity and/or differences.

RQ 1: WHAT ARE TEACHERS' PRACTICES IN IMPLEMENTING TRANSLANGUAGING IN SECONDARY AND TERTIARY ESL/EFL CLASSROOMS?
A set of questions were posed during the interviews to elicit the teachers' responses on their translanguaging practices in ESL/EFL lessons. The responses are discussed by the categories and subcategories of the strategies used in translanguaging practices proposed by Romanowski (2019) which are related to the findings of the current study. There were also three other additional subcategories of translanguaging strategies that were newly discovered from the findings.

TEACHERS' USE OF TRANSLANGUAGING AS AN EXPLANATORY STRATEGY
Teachers' use of translanguaging for translating. Based on the interview, it was found that both the secondary school (P1) and university ESL teachers (P2) used translanguaging to translate the target language into their learners' first language. It can be seen from their responses below: "For weak classes, I always say something in English first and then translate it into Malay." (P1) "With weak learners, I will use English first and then translate it into Malay. But with intermediate pupils, I will only code-switch when pupils complain that they cannot understand." (P1) "I did use translanguaging in my writing class, but very minimal… So, for a certain term, this term is quite new to the students. And if I explain in English, maybe the impact to the students is not as much as when I translate it in Bahasa. So, I use that to make them understand what do I mean by this term" (P2) "….But I can just straightaway translate according to my understanding of that particular term" (P2) Teachers' use of translanguaging for elaborating. Although both teachers used translanguaging for translating, the amount of usage was different. As for the university ESL teacher, the use of translanguaging is only limited to the word or phrase level, with the learners' first language strictly avoided when giving an explanation or elaboration. This can be seen in the teacher's remarks, which are as follows.
"I only use words or phrases to translate. But I seldom use Bahasa for the whole explanation of something for a lesson." "I try not to use it when I explain things, but I will use it when I found that some words in Bahasa can give more understanding to them." (P2) Contrarily, the secondary school teacher used translanguaging to the extent of translating entire English sentences into Malay. This is because translanguaging is also used for explaining and elaborating the lesson content.
"For weak classes, I always say something in English first and then translate it into Malay". (P1) "I will repeat my instruction using simpler words… When I cannot come up with any easier way to say it, translanguaging will be my last hope." (P1) "I'll ask the pupils to underline the words they have problems with, and I'll explain the meaning afterward. I'll try to explain the meaning in the simplest English. If they still cannot understand it, I will use Malay." (P1) "I actually use translanguaging to give instructions and explanations of the lesson content in most of my lessons." (P1) Whether it is used at the word, phrase, or sentence levels, the implementation of translanguaging in both secondary and tertiary education contexts is to facilitate learners' understanding of the target language. This is parallel to the findings from several studies (Alasmari et al., 2022;Berlianti and Pradita, 2021;Fang and Liu, 2020;Rabbidge, 2019) in which translanguaging is claimed to help ESL learners understand the English vocabulary used by the language instructors, be it in their lesson delivery or the materials used.

TEACHERS' USE OF TRANSLANGUAGING AS A MANAGERIAL STRATEGY.
Teachers' use of translanguaging for providing feedback. In terms of the implementation of translanguaging as a managerial strategy, only the university ESL teacher admitted to using the approach for providing feedback to the students in circumstances such as when commenting on the students' work and conducting a consultation session with them. In fact, this is the only managerial strategy that is conducted using translanguaging by the university ESL teacher.
"I also use translanguaging when I give feedback, for example, in a consultation, when this is more to one-to-one communication with my students, I use it. For example, I already explained to them what their mistakes are, how they can improve their work. But if I notice that they look puzzled, they still don't understand what's wrong with their tasks, then sometimes I will use translanguaging to explain in Bahasa to make sure that they know how they can improve that particular task or what's wrong with that task." (P2) As for the secondary school context, such usage was not mentioned as one of the translanguaging practices in ESL classrooms. However, since the secondary school teacher has also admitted to constantly translating English speech into Malay with the poor learners, providing feedback in the learners' L1 is most likely to take place in the lessons.
"I need to use Malay to make them understand what I am saying. For weak classes, I always say something in English first and then translate it into Malay. I did try using full English once and they went absolutely clueless about what to do. So, there is no other way but to use translanguaging with this type of pupil." (P1) Teachers' use of translanguaging for giving instructions. Based on the interviews, it was discovered that the use of translanguaging as a method of giving instructions only occurred in the secondary education context. With respect to the tertiary ESL classrooms, giving instructions was not mentioned as one of the translanguaging strategies. This could be due to the teacher's limitations over the use of translanguaging where translation occurred only at the word or phrase level instead of whole sentences.
Teachers' use of translanguaging for checking understanding. Similar to the previous strategy, the use of translanguaging for checking understanding only transpired in secondary school ESL lessons. Meanwhile, this strategy was not included by the university language teacher as one of the translanguaging practices utilised in the tertiary ESL classrooms.
"For reading, I usually ask them to read a text and check on their understanding…..I'll try to explain the meaning in the simplest English. If they still cannot understand it, I will use Malay." (P1) Teachers' use of translanguaging for classroom management. Other than the subcategories listed by Romanowski (2019), the findings also revealed another managerial strategy that is realised through the use of translanguaging, which is classroom management. Nevertheless, this strategy only occurred in the tertiary education context as opposed to secondary school ESL lessons. In the tertiary ESL classrooms, the teacher implemented translanguaging as a tool to manage the classroom, that is by getting the students' attention on what was being taught as well as encouraging students' responses during the lessons.
"Okay, I think it can be helpful in classroom setting. Especially when I want to get their attention" (P2) "Okay, so I use translanguaging mainly in my classroom to ….and also to get a more engaging reaction or feedback from my students." (P2) This concurs with the findings by Berlianti and Pradita (2021) in which translanguaging is reported to be utilised by teachers to attract learners' attention to the lesson materials.

TEACHERS' USE OF TRANSLANGUAGING AS AN INTERPERSONAL STRATEGY
Teachers' use of translanguaging for interpreting. The findings show that translanguaging was also used as an interpersonal strategy specifically for interpreting learners' speech. This is because some learners, mainly the weaker ones, tend to make serious errors when speaking the target language, causing great ambiguity in their speech. Hence, with the help of the learners' L1, the teacher would eventually be able to interpret their distorted English sentences and get their message. Nonetheless, this practice was visible only in the context of tertiary education as opposed to the secondary school context. "…sometimes they find it hard to explain what the thing that they don't understand. So what they do is, "Madam, can I speak in Bahasa?" And then they can explain better, and I can understand better what is the problem there. So, in a way, that helps us to solve the problem that we have before." (P2) Teachers' use of translanguaging for building rapport. Other than the strategies proposed by Romanowski (2019), the findings also disclose another type of translanguaging strategy used by the ESL teachers, which is building rapport with the learners. This practice was reported in both secondary and tertiary education contexts, where teachers used translanguaging to appear friendlier and more approachable to their students. It was found that learners felt less intimidated when their instructors spoke in their first language in certain circumstances during the lessons and thus encouraged them to interact more with the language teachers. This can be observed in the following remarks: "….translanguaging improves my relationship with the pupils." (P1) "I learned to adapt and incorporate more use of translanguaging in my lessons with the pupils. They started to become friendlier with me since then." (P1) "Okay, so I use translanguaging mainly in my classroom to build rapport with the students." (P2) "….if I want to make the environment of the class light… For example, making jokes. I asked them about something personal. Maybe I will use translanguaging." (P2) "I think the students will be more comfortable to talk to me when I incorporate Bahasa or when I say something in Bahasa in class. Maybe, I don't know. They have this perspective that when an English teacher says something in Bahasa, they were like, "wow", something like that. Or they can actually engage better with me when I speak or when I translate in Bahasa. So in a way, I think they find me more approachable." (P2) The results agree with the findings from the previous studies (Cai and Fang, 2022;Fang and Liu, 2020) where both reported the use of translanguaging by language instructors for establishing rapport between the teacher and learners.
Teachers' use of translanguaging for increasing learners' motivation. Similar to the previous strategy, the teachers' use of translanguaging for increasing learners' motivation is also another new discovery from the findings, which falls under the interpersonal strategy. The findings show that teachers in both secondary and tertiary education use translanguaging to increase their students' motivation to learn the target language, particularly low proficiency students and pupils. They claimed that the use of the learners' first language was able to relieve their anxiety and fear of learning English. The learners would feel more motivated to take part in the tasks and activities when translanguaging was utilised in the ESL classrooms.
"If I keep forcing the use of only English in my classroom, they will become more demotivated to learn this language. …so I have to adjust." (P1) "…when these pupils understand, they become more motivated to learn. They become more interested to know more about the topic, especially reading. Once they have understood paragraph one, they'll become more interested and excited to know what happens next in the subsequent paragraphs." (P1) "…when you have better rapport with your students, they tend to be more motivated to learn.." (P2) This is in line with the results from the previous research (Rabbidge, 2019;Yasar Yuzlu and Dikilitas, 2022) who reported on how translanguaging practices were able to encourage learners' participation in ESL classrooms.

TEACHERS' POSITIVE ATTITUDE TOWARD THE USE OF TRANSLANGUAGING AS A PEDAGOGICAL STRATEGY
From the analysis, both respondents from secondary and tertiary contexts showed a positive attitude toward the use of translanguaging as a pedagogical strategy in their ESL classrooms. As discussed in RQ 1, both respondents perceive translanguaging as an effective tool to facilitate learning, manage classroom activities, and foster communication with learners.
"For me, translanguaging is very useful and helpful in my lessons because I'm dealing with mostly weak to average pupils. Translanguaging is a must every day. I have to use Malay in class otherwise the objectives of the lesson won't be achieved since they would not understand my speech". (P1) "I think it is helpful for the students to understand the lesson. What I meant by that term. So if it enhances their understanding, it can make them understand and avoid confusion, then I will use translanguaging". (P2) From the two excerpts above, both respondents reflect agreement on the fact that translanguaging is primarily useful for enhancing learners' understanding regardless of the educational settings they are in. This fosters a positive attitude and perception toward the use of translanguaging in their classrooms.
This present finding corroborates the findings of previous studies that advocate the ideas of using translanguaging to support understanding and to explain new or complex concepts to the learners. According to Alamasri (2022), teachers largely have positive perceptions of translanguaging mainly because translanguaging facilitates the comprehension of complicated vocabularies. Other studies (Ngubane, 2020; Putri and Rifai, 2022) also discovered that integration of translanguaging is effective particularly in explaining difficult concepts; thus, this empowers the use of learners' L1 to bridge the knowledge gap.
Apart from explanatory strategy, it is also noted that participants from both educational contexts view translanguaging positively as they can promote interpersonal strategy in their lessons.
"…they become more motivated to learn. They become more interested to know more about the topic…" (P1) "I think the students will be more comfortable to talk to me when I incorporate Bahasa or when I say something in Bahasa in class. Maybe, I don't know. They have this perspective that when an English teacher says something in Bahasa, they were like, "wow", something like that. Or they can actually engage better with me when I speak or when I translate in Bahasa. So in a way, I think they find me more approachable". (P2) The participants' responses above convey that translanguaging is used to instil motivation among learners and help teachers build rapport with their students. Past studies (Dikilitas, 2022;Wong and Yoong, 2019) also support the notion that teachers show a positive attitude toward the practice of translanguaging as it enhances interpersonal communication in ESL/EFL settings as similarly found in this study.

TEACHERS' DIFFERENT SENTIMENTS TOWARDS THE USE OF TRANSLANGUAGING AMONG LEARNERS
Despite the positive feedback shown by both participants on the use of translanguaging as a pedagogical strategy, it is noted that they show different sentiments when translanguaging is employed by learners. In a secondary educational context, translanguaging happens in a two-way manner. The teacher accepts the use of translanguaging among the learners by acknowledging the students when they employ translanguaging. On the other hand, in a tertiary educational context, translanguaging is practised as a one-way approach, primarily by the teacher, and students are discouraged from using their L1 in or out of lessons.
"I can tell because they are now more confident to tell me jokes in English or Malay and sometimes, they tell me about their personal life too, like what they do at home after school or during the holidays and such". (P1) "...because once I use Bahasa, sometimes they start to respond to me in Bahasa as well. I think that's okay because I started it.But sometimes even in a discussion in class they speak in Bahasa. Maybe they thought that I'm okay using Bahasa in class. So that's one of the drawbacks". (P2) The participant in a tertiary setting further emphasised that the use of translanguaging is not permitted in and outside of the classroom.
"…sometimes it's not only about the tasks that they have to speak in English with me in class, but generally I want them to use English whenever they text me or whenever they talk to me about other things". (P2) This finding in the tertiary educational context correlates with other scholars who have discovered similar beliefs in their past studies. Cai and Fang's study (2022) concurs with this finding that teachers acknowledge the effectiveness of translanguaging as a pedagogical strategy; however, overuse of this strategy is perceived as a threat for university learners to acquire the target language. Sobkowiak (2022) also reported that most ESL/EFL instructors uphold the idea of using the target language exclusively in classrooms. Therefore, employing translanguaging has challenged this stance to some degree.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study is considered timely in light of the growing concerns about the use of translation as a pedagogical strategy. There have been few studies that compare the use of translanguaging in two or more educational contexts. Therefore, this current research has taken an approach to compare the practices and perspectives on translanguaging in an ESL setting involving teachers from two educational contexts, namely secondary and tertiary levels. Nevertheless, there are certain limitations to this study which should be viewed as suggestions for improvements for future studies. Firstly, the comparison in this study is viewed from the perspective of two different educational levels only. Other factors such as the location of the institutions where the teachers are working, and the demographic data are not considered variables for comparison. Hence, this study gains limited findings as other variables (i.e., rural/urban areas or learners' proficiency levels) are excluded. Moreover, this study employed a sole instrument that is a semi-structured interview for data collection. Triangulation should be carried out to further validate the reliability of the findings. Considering other instruments such as classroom observation and field notes would help to overcome the disparity of these findings. Lastly, since the researchers had limited access to the learning institutions in Malaysia, the respondents were chosen from only one secondary school and one university. For wider and more substantial findings, more participants from different learning institutions should be considered.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION OF STUDY
The findings of this study can be summarised in two aspects. Firstly, the use of translanguaging as a pedagogical tool is perceived as purposeful in all strategies proposed by Romanowski (2019) namely the explanatory, managerial, and interpersonal strategies. Nevertheless, there are differences in the usage of the sub-strategies under each category in secondary and tertiary ESL classrooms. Therefore, ESL/EFL teachers should consider employing this tool in the lessons as it helps teachers facilitate teaching and provide a safe environment for learning. To ensure effective implementation of translanguaging, teachers should tailor the implementation of the strategies according to their learners' needs. Secondly, though translanguaging is generally accepted as an effective pedagogical tool, to some degree, teachers are still restricted by the monolingual approach in ESL/EFL classrooms. This notion mainly governs the use of translanguaging which may hamper learning acquisition when translanguaging is restricted among the learners.
Hence, it can be suggested that proposing the implementation of translanguaging in ESL/EFL classrooms may enhance teaching and learning. It is also hoped that with the insight from this study, teachers in different educational contexts will be able to select the best strategies for their learners and be mindful with their implementation. Furthermore, the findings of this study will provide other researchers with a broader perspective in exploring the similarities and/or differences identified between the two contexts, paving the way for future research. Lastly, it is believed that stakeholders and policymakers will be able to review the existing monolingual policy employed in ESL/EFL classrooms and provide guidelines for translanguaging to occur.